Information Management and Systems

schooling commission and SystemsIt is fructifyd as the discipline that covers several(prenominal) applications including great deal,procedures and technologies.these a ppliocations argon collectively reffered to as training ashess.In normalation Systems Management (ISM) atomic number 18 distinct from the normal t distributivelying frames in the sense that they ar loose of analyzing former(a) emergence sytems that ar apllied in operating(a) activities of an transcription.It is a aforethought(ip) system of perfoming collection,storingand dissemination of data in the form of the required info for carrying break requisite management functions.In the academic world the term is substance abuse to refer to,a group of teaching management modes twined to the automation of serviceman conclusion making.Such systems admitExpert Systems,excecutive instruction Systems and Decicion Support Systems.ISM includes the application of reading Technology in run on of major f unctions and activities in an organization or institution.ISM supports branches ofStorage,collection,manipulation,utilization and distribution of development resources of an organization.Manual memberes argon similarly included in an instruction system.This term is used as a synonym for info that ar ready reck angiotensin-converting enzymer-establish. knowledge systems go out often deal with dockets such as use, spudment and management of an organizations cultivation technology infrastructure. It includes systems that argon non intended for last makingCurrently the focus of companies has shifted from reaping oriented to information oriented.this manner that there is more competition in process and innovation,by market operators, sooner than product.There is much emphasis on the production process and serve that accompanies the process of production.One of the close valued as range of a company is its information. This calls for a very strong information infrastructu re. thereof the teach of information systems is keen on why and how technology can be put into excellent use in service to information flow inwardly an organization.A grand majority of information systems are developed for people. This peole employ the same in various areas including functional areas such ashuman resource,marketing,finance,accounting etc.ISM professionals require a strong mixture of both(prenominal) proficient foul and job cognition for them to develop an information system that meets the needfully of an organization. They must figure organizations objectives,its structures,operations and financial implications that are relative to these factors.Good understanding of these factors will arrive at the ISM professionals a strong base for effective communication with substance ab drug drug substance abusers before designing systems that will support their needfully.It is excessively a good attribute of an ISM manager or professional to be updated with th e evolving information technologies.They should posses a strong foundation of proficient skills so as to select appropriate technologies and implementation of computer based information system.OVERVIEWIn the current race broadcast,it is definite that technology bunks both effectively and reliably. ISM professionals get to a key role in implementing technology within organizations.Infomation Systems Managers plan,net tend,and target enquiry and facilitate all computer related duties of firms.They are functional in determining both business and technical goals during consultation with the top management.They take for detailed plans in accomplishing these goals.They make it verbatimions to different computer related workers e.g computer programmers, system analysts etc.They also economic aid in planning and coordinating activities desire installation and upgrading of hardware and software,developing computer networks,implementation of internet and intranet sites and systems designing.They are involved with upkeep,security and mantainance of networks.They perplex a role in analyzing the computer and information ask of the organizations they work with from a strategic and operational perspective.Hence determining the longrange roughlybodynel and equipment requirements.Their duties also include assigning and reviewing their surbodinates work.They are also supposed to ensure that their organizations do not lag behind competitors. training NEEDSEnd users of a system have diametric information inescapably depending on what he/she is trying to amaze,why she/he is trying to find and when she/he is trying to find the information.An example is the design of a lag directory,where there is an assumption that well-nigh users will be sufficient to perfoam cognize item searching.Thet the user knows exactly what he is looking for,e.g Kerrys phone number.He has necessary terms to articulate the need,e.g he knows Kerrys second name is Brown and thats what he will search under.And closingly he knows that that staff directory exists and that its the right place to look.Identification of information needfully is important in designing an information system and to the provision of relative information services.For effective realisation of information needs one has to identify the different methods for gathering information on various factors influencing those needs.A selection depending on the needs of the user is necessary.A footmark by step procedure is necessary in identifying information needs of most users.a careful analysis is to be make to distinguish the actual needs from the data gathered. The information needs identifierwill be able to discover, as a bye product, several ideas, shits, methods and techniques of satisfying the users in meeting their needs.At present,insufficient self sufficiency constitutes information needs. These information needs represent vacuums in the current companionship of the enduser. Besides the e xpected or articulated needs, there exists unexpressed needs which the user is sensitive of but will not like to express. The other category of need is the dormant need which the user is not aware of. scarcely the information services provider might be able to bring to light these needs . A need is picky(prenominal).It is generally quantify bound,either immediate or deferred.Information provided for a need will be used.Information provided whitethorn also be used or may not be used. Information needs depend onArea of interest stratified position of somebodyswork activityneed to take a decisionAvailability of facilities.Need to seek new ideasMotivation factors for information needsNeed to establish priority for recovery etcInformation needs are also affected by a variety of factors includingThe consequences of information seethe of information sources availableBackground,professional,motivational orientationUses of which information will be used.The social, political, economi c, good and regulatory systems surrounding the userInformation needs identification is also somewhat a complex process. Some of the factors variation it complex includeOriginal documents needed by researchersIndividual preferences and behavioural aspects add a advertise dimension.Same information is perceived differently by usersInformation is put to different usesNeed is satisfied by having access to the place information in a particular package and form, and at a suitable fourth dimensionThe flow of information and channels of communication are complex and add to the complexityThe main steps in the process of identifying information needs is shown below poring over the subject(s) of interest to the organization and or User(s directing the organisation and its environs psychoanalyseing the immediate environment of the User(s)Studying the User(s)Performing a formal oppugnIdentifying and go intoing of the information needsAnalysing and refining the identified information needs .Preparation for identifying information needsA very undefined particular is faced maybe only by the information professionals. They are unable to prescribe the required information to their line in the authority the other professionals like physicians prescribe.Such prescriptions have a final say and authority, and which are embraced by the clients.Prescription is authoritative mainly because the clients of physicians and other professionals are seeking advice in a field which they themselves are ignorant of. But the clients of information professionals are more often specialists in the areas they seek information and professional advice. The main reason why there are difficulties experience by the information professionals in distinguishing the wishes or the desires from the actual needs of the users . Therefore the information professional has to prepare himself/ herself in such a way as to create confidence in the users almost his/ her professional capabilities. It will als o be important if the probe of information needs is to be successful, it is above all good to bear in mind that the psyche chosen to be the information needs identifier will need to be acceptable at all levels of users and have credibility. most taperlines in the form of a step by step procedure to identify information needs is presented incorporating the steps to be taken by the information system adentifier to equip himself/ herself for this investigative work.Study of subjectsAn information needs identifier must athletic field the subjects of interest to the organization,users, and identify the central, peripheral and supporting areas.The result of such a playing area would pay back a handbook on the subject to guide further work of identifying the information needs. This handbook is not a technical manual for technical personnel but a handy tool for the information professional. Such a handbook would present a birds spunk view of the subject giving the following Definitio ns of the subject concerned, unruffled from different authoritative sources bringing out the similarities and differences compass of the subject giving definitions and scope of divisions and subdivisions scope of the subjects that are tool subjects applicable to the subject concerned for its development and scope of the subject in terms of the areas/subjects where the subject concerned is utilise for their development. The different types of classification of the subject concerned including special subject classifications, taxonomic classifications, general document classifications, and vocabulary control tools such as thesaurus. The diachronic development of the subject giving the landmarks (significant contributions) under the broad divisions and subdivisions the trend of research in the subject concerned as revealed in review documents marking out the broad areas in which current researches are in make out and the trend of education and training in the subject concerned. The important sources of information such as documentary sources , institutional sources and human sources and the information off process among the users of information on the subject.After carrying out such a study of subject the Information Needs Identifier becomes confident enough to go by the work of identifying the information needs as he is exposed to the technical terminology and structure of the subject.Study the organization and its environmentThis is the second step in studying the organisation and its environment and preparing a profile for the organisation. Here, it is stabilizing for the information need identifier to know the type of the organisation for example, whether it is a incorporate office, business or industrial enterprise and also differentiate whether it is humans sector or private sector governance or non regimen organisation, profit making or not for profit organisation, so as to identify the different types and styles of management and decision makin g processes which have a bearing on the information needs. As for this purpose, the information need identifier has to study the overall objectives, functions and the factors that affect the functions of the organisation concerned. Hence the organizations chart, the functions/ activities chart, annual reports, project reports, innate reports and other publications of the organisation would have to be studied. It will be of usefulness to the information need identifier to attend special training courses/ orientation programmes normally organised for the benefit of new employees/ entrants/ management trainees by the organisation. The training courses are usually in the form of a series of lectures by aged personnel in the organisation spread over a stop of three to six months. It would cover all subjects relating to the work of the organisation the staple scientific and technical scene and detailed aspects of the engineering and technology of production. march on the participants would be taken to the different divisions of the organisation for m victimisation and practical knowledge of the different items of work.Further, the environment in which the organisation works and its impact would have to be analysed. An information need identifier may have to study the tops(predicate) ordinate organisation, its objectives, functions etc., forming the environment and the factors that may affect the particular organisation concerned. case of a national organisation, then the countrys political, social, economical and technological environment having a bearing on the organisation as well as government regulatory environment would have to be taken note of.Study of the users circumstantial environmentAt this point, it may be necessary to define in an ordely manner, the category of users whose information needs are to be identified. The Information need identifier must get himself well acquainted with the subdivision of the individual user before conducting any act ual interview with the user for the identification of his/her information needs. Most of the aspects to be covered in this study areHistory of the concerned department, its objectives and functions.Organisational structure. expatiate of products and/ or processes of manufacture and/ or research.Details of plant, machinery, equipment, testing and other facilities.Scope of each discernible activity of the department.Information flow in the functioning of the department.Present sources of information and the channels and media used in the departments.Types of information services being used in the departments. particularized subjects on which information is being sought including type of information and liberal of presentation required.Recent significant events and problems figure out and the way they are solved including specific information used in solving the problems.Any other items of interest such as on going projects, training programmes etc., in the unit.Some of the sources that are to be studied for this purpose include the periodical/ quarterly/ annual reports by and on the department/ unit and its functions, proceedings of meetings on and by the department/ unit, progress reports, project reports, all investigation/ review reports, performance reports, correspondence, proposals by and on the department, records of equipment, machinery and other facilities etc. It may be necessary for the INI to spend sufficient time in the users department to understand and acquaint himself with the working of the department, its organisational set up, the various activities etc., and thereby understand the situation in which the user is operating. This understanding will help the INI to tardily correlate the users information needs in relation to his environment/ situation and enable the INI to grasp what the user is intending to communicate during any future interview with the user.Study of the userUsers often tend to classify their wants/ interests into fragm ented obtain lists, whereas their true needs may only be identified from a greater understanding of the user as a person . Therefore,emphasis should be placed on the basic needs of the individual as person . As such, it is essential that information need identifier should attempt to perceive the users problems as holistically as possible. If this is acceptable, then the expression of the information need ceases to be scientifically impersonal objective entity and becomes an expression which cannot be fully communicated apart from the user.Therefore, the close step, after the study of the users environment, is to study each of the individual users. Users are individuals. Nevertheless, in designing information systems, it is useful to classify groups of users. In relation to a specific existing or planned information facility, at least four different types of users can be exalted ..Potential user the one who needs information which might be provided by specific services of the info rmation facility.Expected user the one who is known to have the intent of using certain information services (subscriber to a specific information service such as an abstracting service).Actual User the one who has actually used an information service regardless of whether any avail was derived from it or not.Beneficiary the one who derives measurable advantage from information services. act a potential user into an actual user and into a donee should of course be the aim of planners, designers and operators of information systems.Users may be further classified into the following broad functional groups Top Management which is amenable for policy making, strategic/ long range planning regarding mergers, acquisitions, capitals, new product lines.Scientists responsible for research, innovation, technical know how generation etc.Middle Management responsible for solving problems and making decisions required to ful shoot the goals and implement policies set up by the top management .Supervisors responsible for ensuring that the products and services are produced on time, within the cost and quality level set.Operating Personnel / Technicians responsible for routine operations.Moreover, in an organisation setting, a user may trifle different specific work roles in performing his duties and in carrying out his functions and responsibilities. Some of the specific roles managers play, for instance include Team Leader involutionMonitor/ ControllerDisseminator SpokesmanTrouble shooterResource allocatorResource SeekerNegotiatorDecision Maker.Some of the communication activities of a manager and the percentage of events for each of the activities are given belowReceiving information, facts 27.8 %Receiving bespeak for information, facts 8.0 %Receiving request for action 5.1 %Receiving request for approval 1.1 %Receiving intellection 0.7 %Receiving request for opinion 0.4 %Receiving applications for positions 0.4 %Receiving invitation 0.4 %Giving information, facts 1 2.1 %Giving opinions 0.7 %Giving instructions 0.7 % quest information, facts 9.2 %Requesting action 3.3 %Seeking opinion 0.4 %Checking and signing documents 6.6 %Circulating and moving documents 2.6 %Making notes and paper 1.5 %Interviewing 1.1 %Discussing interviewees 0.7 %Introducing verbalizer 0.4 %Participating in decision making 0.4 %Delaying response 0.4 %General discussion, meetings 12.8 % Byzantine events 1.8 %Others 1.5 %Further an individual may form a node in the following three directions of information flow in the organisationcommunicating down the line which is basically of five types Giving job instructions and specific task directives.Job rationale information that is designed to produce understanding of the task and its relation to other organisational tasks.Information about organizational procedures and practices.Feedback to the subordinate about their performance.Indoctrination of goals information of an ideological character to inculcate a sense of mission.C ommunicating upward which may be reduced to what people sayabout themselves, their performance and their problemsabout others and their problemsabout organisational policies and practices andabout what needs to be done and how.Horizontally communicating with colleagues in the same gradable level.A user, in his professional capacity, is in continuous interaction withhis horticulture that sets values and policies, and other influences and attitude.formal organisations such as his employing organization.invisible colleges, portal keepers as a type of reference group sufficiently distinguished by its membership criteria and communication patterns to warrant separate identification.the political system that can promote or inhibit activity and information flow.the effectual and economic systems that impose legal and financial restraints on access to information.his work team, a sub system of the organisation that is distinguished because of interpersonal characteristics.himself, that is his cognitive system, motivations, attitudes etcformal information systems such as libraries and information centres.membership groups like professional societies that control information channelsreference group made up of individuals having similar specialisation or interests but who are not necessarily in the same membership groups.Users who find themselves in such complex situations may have to be studied using a combination of various direct and indirect methods.Direct methods of user study arePersonal informal contacts with the user. detect the user while at discussion with his colleaguesSurvey using questionnaireDialogue with the user while rendering information services to him/herObserving the user at his work limelight (office, laboratory, factory, group meeting etc.)Interviewing the user, his supervisors, his subordinates, his personal secretary/assistant or his colleagues of co ordinate status.Observing the user while using information sources and services.Observing th e user while giving a lecture/demonstration etc.Indirect methods includeStudy of diary record of activities/ functions/ events prolonged by the user.Study of citations standard by the users publicationsStudy of citations/ references given in the users publicationsStudy of papers, books etc., published by the userStudy of job description of the userAnalysis of users response/ feedback to information servicesAnalysis of reference queries received from the userStudy of documents used by the userAnalysis of the patents, designs etc., held by the userScanning correspondence and reports prepared and received by the userAdvantages of direct observation are that the information need identifier comes in direct and personal contact with the user in a dialogue, interview or discussion and that it provides an opportunity for observing the users in their normal environment. Therefore direct observation provides information on the personality and behaviour pattern of the user in different acti on situations. A disadvantage of the direct observation is that it so much depends on the observers own capability and adequacy in carrying out such observational studies. Inadequacies may come up in professional attainments, ability in communicating, maturity, tact and knowledge of and skill in carrying out an observational studies. It is also necessary to note that the inferences drawn from the observations may have incidence of subjective element of the observer.The analysis and inferences from indirect studies are based on the work done by the users which is based on serious thought on their part and is not merely some winning of off hand ad hoc statements.Therefore the records of users is adequate in miserliness of a more reliable indication of his/her subject interests, level of understanding, orientation, up to date in the subject and the skill to express ideas in writing for communication with peers. These studies also provide adequate time for analysis.The data collected is about a situation at a point in time and in a particular context which is to be extrapolated to a dynamic changing situation.Users are a living, developing beings, working in a system which itself is subjected to constant change.Few methods of study of users are discussed below prior mess of users.To begin with it is very useful to start with a survey of users.key attributes of a user may be grouped as follows exit interestNormal field of specialisation Specific topics of interest within the field of specialisationSubjects closely related to the aboveAcademic background and orientationEducational background Professional background Background of research, developmental activity, management activity etc.Psychological attributes, particularlyTemperament reaction and communication of ideas Attitudes towards professional team mates, colleagues, etc., in the organisationAbility to express ideas preciselyAttitude to using and acquiring ability to use the tools and techniques of informa tion servicesSpecifically the information need identifier would need information about the user relating to the following Foreign language competence.Types of reports both internal and outdoor(a) received and sent by the user Types of reports both internal and external which the user is not receiving but would like to receiveFunctions, activities, tasks (job description) and responsibilities (specific work roles) in the organisationAuthors and Corporate Bodies, whose works are of interestEducation, training and special expertise.Membership in professional bodiesChannels of communication between the user and other departments/ personnel of the organisation Outside organisations with which the user has academic or professional contactsMembership in committees, task groupsPeriodicals and other information services received through membershipSubject and associated interests specific subjects, allied subjects one-year Reviews and other Series publications in which interested.Periodica ls often containing articles of interest which are to be specifically notifiedKinds of information media preferred by the userTime most convenient to the user to receive information servicesPosition of the user in the organization.Types of information notices/ services preferred by the user calculate time available to the user in a day or week for readingAlso information about the user may be obtained by a study of his/ her resume.Information need identifier should also carryout surveys using questionnaires for collecting such preliminary information about the users. He should fill up the questionnaire himself after following the steps of studying the subject, the organization, the specific department and the resume of the user. This would show some gaps in the resume and would help sign on on information not available from it. A shortcoming with the questionnaire method is the low return rate.Study of Work Diary Maintained by the UserUsers may maintain a diary about their work for their own use. It recordsimportant activities like filing of license applications, critical events and incidentscomments on how improvement could be achieved in the organizationdiscussions/ meetings with experts and / or with colleagues, for specific problems and their themethe consultants/ consultancy organisations preferredmethod of solution or probable reasons for non solution roadway of search for specific information, kinds of documents/ sources/ services/ channels/ media consulted and used and their usefulnessprocedures, techniques s/he has used and/ or has planned to usedetails of projects s/he is engaged inworking detailsobservationscases of problems facedresults arrived atSome organisations it is mandatory that such a diary or record is maintained by each member of staff above a certain level as a part of the project routine, in a general prescribed form. Users to be studied should be asked to maintain a diary of all important events, cases of problems faced, method of so lution, the specific information sources/ services/ channels/ media used and their usefulness. Also, they may be asked to record each and every event in the order of occurrence. Such a diary record, properly designed and carefully maintained can be a source of useful information on the specific topics of interest to the user.The methods and techniques s/he has used or planned to use in his work the kinds of documents, information sources and services s/he uses extensively the extent of time he normally spends in reading books, articles, reports etc., in discussion with colleagues, experts and the kind of personal information services s/he prefers. Occassionally it may give some information on the persons in the organisation and outside it, with whom he usually associates himself with.Survey of information sources usedThe next step is to make a study of the different sources of information/ information services being used by the users. This aim of this study is to bring out the relev ancy of different types of sources/ services, the frequency of use, the availability/ accessibility of the s